Civil War Medicine: Angels of the Battlefield

Women weren't initially welcome in the Civil War armies, but thousands eventually ended up serving as nurses. We feature five here. Listen in to learn about nurses like Sally Louisa Tompkins, whose hospital became one of the most successful of the war.

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Episode Transcript

Speaker 1 (00:00):
Welcome to Stuff you missed in History Class from how
Stuff Works dot com. Hello, and welcome to the podcast
I'm to blame a chalk reboarding and I'm fair And
so far in our little series about Civil War medicine,
we've focused on stories about doctors, but we'd be remiss

(00:23):
if we didn't also discuss some of the other heroes
who fall under the umbrella Civil War nurses. And as
we mentioned in the podcast about Dr Mary Edwards Walker,
women weren't really welcome in the army or on the battlefield,
especially at the start of the war. So first, all
of the nurses, both on the Confederate and the Union
side were guys. However, most of the male nurses were

(00:46):
just wounded soldiers who couldn't fight anymore, so they didn't
really know that much about how to take care of
sick people. They didn't have much experience. But when both
sides started to get overwhelmed with the sheer number of
soldiers who were wounded or just say, of course it
is the Civil War after all, uh, they needed even
more help and women really started to get interested in working,

(01:08):
helping out and wrapped up in the whole challenge of
tending for these men, and the armies didn't relent at first,
but some women just kept pushing until they were able
to help. They just would not take no for an answer.
And then eventually the governments on both sides eased up
on their gender rules and thousands of women, about twenty
thousand in fact, ended up serving as nurses during the

(01:30):
Civil War. You'll often hear them referred to as angels
of the battlefield, hence the title to this podcast. And
some of them, like Walker, actually had some sort of
medical training, if you'll remember, she actually volunteered as a
nurse before being commissioned as an assistant surgeon. But there
were many others who were just courageous women who knew
something about sanitation and they had experienced treating sick family members.

(01:53):
And so we're going to talk about five of these
Civil War nurses, and by no means as this an
exhaust of list, there are so many that we aren't
able to include, but we think that these are worthy
entries just the same. So first we're going to start
out with a nurse who served on the Confederate side
of the war early on in the war, by about
July eighteen sixty one, hospitals in the South filled up,

(02:15):
and the Confederate government asked locals to help by setting
up private hospitals, and the most famous was one set
up by a woman named Sally Tompkins. So Sally Louisa
Tompkins was born November nine, eighteen thirty three, into a
family with a long military tradition. Her grandfather, Colonel John Patterson,
had been commissioned by George Washington himself during the Revolutionary War,

(02:39):
and this was probably one reason. The strong military tradition
was one reason that Tompkins supported the Confederate cause so passionately.
But she was also very passionate about her commitment to
the Episcopal Church, and it was through her church that
she initially got involved in charitable efforts like nursing. You're
going to see a church connection with several of these ladies.

(03:00):
In fact, she was used attending the thick even slaves
on plantations near where she lived, so she she had
experience um nursing, yeah, and she didn't discriminate in that department.
And after her father died, Tompkins and her mother moved
to Richmond from Matthews County, Virginia and joined St. James
Episcopal Church there, and that's where Sally got to know

(03:22):
some prominent people in Richmond, including a person named Judge
John Robertson. And after the war started, Robertson moved his
family to the country to keep them safe, and he
allowed Tompkins to convert his vacant home in Richmond into
a twenty two bed private hospital. She did this mostly
with her own funds, and she named it Robertson Hospital

(03:43):
in honor of the judge. The hospital opened up July one,
eighteen sixty one. So if you're gonna have a hospital,
you need to have doctors too, and she got doctor A. Y. P.
Garnett to be her chief surgeon and another six doctors
or so to work under him. And Sally also had
a group of female volunteers recruited called the Ladies of
Robertson Hospital to help her manage things and staff the

(04:07):
whole operation, and Robertson Hospital was known for being especially
efficient and well organized, but above all for being especially clean.
Sally had been described as being obsessed with cleanliness and sanitation,
and of course this was really before people knew a
whole lot about the link between sanitation and preventing infection,

(04:28):
but it suspected that this is why she was able
to save an unusually high number of lives at her hospital,
and we're going to talk about that a little more
in just a bit. But the road wasn't entirely smooth
for Sally's hospital. In September of eighteen sixty one, just
a few weeks after the hospital had opened, the government
decided to close all private hospitals. And that's I mean,

(04:48):
there are several reasons for this, but some of the
hospitals were charging too much and keeping soldiers longer than
they really needed to, and so the Army wanted to
place them under the control of the utter A Medical
Department instead. But Robertson Hospital was going to be closed
as part of this decision, but Tompkins fought back. She
appealed to President Jefferson Davis himself, and she showed him

(05:10):
her records which showed the really high percentage of soldiers
that she had helped get back to the battlefield already.
And Davis was convinced by this, and he agreed to
let Robertson Hospital come under the Army's control, which would,
among other things, give them access to whatever supplies the
Army had and as part of this, Sally was commissioned
as a captain in the Confederate Cavalry on September nine,

(05:31):
eighteen sixty one. But even though she accepted that commission,
she refused to accept any army pay and preferred to
get food in medicine for the men instead. And that's
another thing I think you'll notice with a few of
these ladies, this real selfless quality, sometimes to their own
detriment in the end. But this commission as captain in
the Confederate Cavalry made her the first woman in the

(05:54):
country to hold a military rank during wartime and the
only woman officer to serve in the Confederate Army, and
it caught on soon. She became known affectionately as Captain Sally.
And Robertson Hospital stayed open for the duration of the war,
and Captain Sally spent basically all of her time they're
tending to patience with her medicine bag and her bible

(06:17):
and tow and really earned a reputation for her healing hands. Actually,
patients seemed to seem to notice her hands in particular.
You know, they called her the little lady with the
milk white hands. That was one of her nicknames in
addition to Captain Sally, And according to an article by
Reid Albert and Civil War Times, several soldiers proposed marriage

(06:37):
to her. And I mean they weren't just taken by
her hands. I guess they were taken by her whole package. Yes,
But she turned them all down and would say, quote,
poor fellows, they are not yet well of their fevers.
And she stayed single her entire life. So on June
Robertson Hospital closed and in four years, one thousand thirty

(06:59):
three patients had been treated there and out of all
of those patients, only seventy three had died, which is
a point five percent survival rate, and it's said to
have had the lowest mortality rate of any military hospital
during the Civil War. Again, maybe because of her insistence
on high sanitation standards, cleanliness, all of that. And she

(07:21):
didn't stop there. Captain Sally continued to devote her life
to philanthropy until she died in July of nineteen sixteen
at the age of eighty three, and she was buried
with full military honors. But we should say that at
her time of death she was pretty much completely broke
because she had spent all of her money on these
philanthropic efforts, all right, So for our next entry, we're
going to move to the Union side and talk about

(07:43):
the famous nurse Mary Anne Bickerdyke. And she was originally
from Knox County, Ohio, and attended Oberlin College and later
trained in botanic and homeopathic medicine. And after her husband,
Robert Bickerdyke, died in eighteen fifty nine, she continued to
practice botanic medicine and apparently did some private nursing as well.
So she had a she had a good background going

(08:06):
into this whole thing, and she wanted to spend the
rest of her life helping people who were ill or
who were in pain. Yeah, I've read that desire to
help people actually stemmed from her reaction to her husband's
death and her grief there. But in June of eighteen
sixty one, her church congregation put her in charge of
making sure a bunch of food and medical supplies made
it to a makeshift army hospital in Cairo, Illinois. And

(08:29):
she was in her mid forties or so at the time.
But when she got there, she was really appalled at
the conditions that she found. They were extremely unsanitary, so
she immediately got to work cleaning, cooking, and offering her
nursing services there. Soon she became matron or head nurse there,
and her cleanup effort spread to several other military hospitals
in the area. By spring of eighteen sixty two or so,

(08:51):
Marianne began traveling around to other areas to trying to
set up clean conditions for medical treatment wherever she went,
and established mobile laundries and kitchens. And she was also
relentless and trying to forge for supplies for wounded or
six soldiers. She really was. She would raid government supplies
without permission. She would even take things from care packages

(09:13):
that had been sent to healthy soldiers. So, in other words,
she did not always play by the rules. And at
first marian really didn't have any sort of official status
with the army, but that didn't stop her from being
pretty pushy and lending a hand or lending her opinion
when it came to the medical treatment of soldiers. She
even called doctors out on certain occasions when she thought

(09:33):
that they were stealing soldiers medicine or food, or just
somehow not acting professionally. And at one point when a
battlefield surgeon asked her who gave her permission to do
what she was doing? You know, like, why are you here?
Mary Anne famously responded, quote, I have received my authority
from the Lord God Almighty. Have you anything that ranks

(09:55):
higher than that? It's tough to argue. Yes, she was,
and she eventually did get a bit more influence. She
was named an agent of the U. S. Sanitation Commission
in eighteen sixty two, and she earned the respect and
friendship of two very important men, General's Ulysses S. Grant
and William T. Sherman. And when someone once complained about
Marianne to Sherman, Sherman said to have told the person, quote, well,

(10:18):
she ranks me, and recommended that that person the complainer,
register his complaint with Abraham Lincoln instead of pick it
up a notch. Exactly Once, though, Sherman did get frustrated
with Marianne and asked if she had ever heard of
a little thing called in subordination. According to an article
in America's Civil War by Alice Stein, Marianne responded, quote,

(10:40):
you bet I've heard of it. It's the only way
I ever get anything done in this army. And she
really did get a lot done. In addition to improving
hospital conditions and scavenging for supplies and helping treat soldiers,
she became well known for scouring battlefields to make sure
that no wounded but living soldiers were out there all alone,

(11:01):
and on at least one occasion, she's said to have
done this by herself at night with just a lantern
two soldiers she cared for. Marianne became known as Mother Bickerdyke,
and because she was so tireless, some also called her
the cyclone in Calico, which I think, doesn't that sound
like maybe a young adult story. It really does. The
whole war nurses go right at somebody. According to Encyclopedia Britannica,

(11:26):
about three hundred field hospitals were built under marianne supervision
during the war, and when the war was over, she
resigned from the Sanitary Commission to devote the rest of
her life to charitable deeds until she died in nineteen
o one. Alright, so moving on to our next entry,
we're heading south again, and this time we're going to
talk about Juliette and Opie Hopkins, who is also known

(11:48):
appropriately enough as the Angel of the South and Unlike
some of the other nurses on our list, Juliette and
Opie Hopkins is probably better remembered as a hospital administrator
than as a hands on nurse. So she did get
shot in the hip during the Battle of Seven Pine,
so she certainly put in her time. Still, though her

(12:08):
influence was great enough for Robert E. Lee to praise
her work and for her to become a pretty well
known figure in the South during the war. Just a
little bit about her background. She was born juliet and
Obi May seven, eighteen on a Virginia plantation, and she
was pulled out of school at sixteen when her mother died,
making her mistress of the house and of more than
two thousand slaves. She was married in her teens and

(12:30):
widowed in her early twenties, and Opie didn't marry again
until her mid thirties, when she would Arthur Francis Hopkins,
a much older widower and the former Chief Justice of
the Alabama Supreme Court and at the time president of
the Mobile and Ohio Railroad. So she moved south to Alabama,
but she and her husband really didn't stay in Mobile

(12:51):
for very long because when the Civil War started and
Alabama went along with the whole thing. Hopkins knew that
the Alabama men fighting up Virginia would need some sort
of medical assistance. They would be without help essentially, and
at the start of the war, there wasn't yet a
United Confederate response to treating the wounded, as we know

(13:11):
from talking about Tompkins a minute ago, So it was
left to states or even individuals like Tompkins or like Hopkins,
to take care of setting up hospitals for long term treatment,
as well as for setting up those field camps at
the front lines of battles. So by the first Battle
of Manassas, she had already had a great reputation for

(13:32):
quickly setting up facilities, for staffing them, and for provisioning them.
And she could turn a tobacco factory into a hospital
in a matter of hours if there were wounded men
waiting for beds, just to give you an example of
how quick she was. By November eighteen sixty one, and
the Alabama legislature finally began authorizing and provisioning state hospitals
in Virginia. They set aside thirty thousand dollars for costs

(13:55):
and made Judge Hopkins the hospital superintendent although they likely
knew well that the ailing sixty nine year old judge
wouldn't be the one who was doing all the work
his wife would. Mrs Hopkins would, and one of Mrs
hopkins great skills was not relying on that patchy funding
from the Alabama state legislature, though, according to an article

(14:15):
by James Knowles in American Civil War, she would raise
money from women's auxiliary clubs, from the Grand Lodge of
the Masonic Order of Alabama, and even Tuskegee school girls
who would put on concerts and send fifty or sixty
dollars something like that. Um She also used a considerable
part of her own and her husband's fortunes to staff

(14:37):
those field camps and and set them up in the
first place. By late eighteen sixty two, the Confederate Congress
was starting to consolidate these state run hospitals into larger
facilities in Richmond, as we mentioned with Tompkins. By December
eighteen sixty three, the Alabama legislature finally stopped funding and
the Hopkins hospitals were looped in under one Confederate department.

(14:59):
So Mrs Hopkins went home to Alabama and how her
picture put on some of the state's currency. She was
kind of a hero in her own state. Yep. She
nursed her husband until his death shortly after the war,
and ultimately relocated to New York, where she lived for
several more decades before dying in Washington, d c. And
being buried in Arlington Cemetery. We wanted to include a

(15:19):
quote about Mrs Hopkins, because, of course, for a nurse,
the best testimony is not going to come from General Lee,
but from one of her own patients. One of these guys,
Private Willie S. Campbell, from the fifth Alabama Infantry, wrote
of his eighteen sixty Tuesday in one of her hospitals quote,
I'm very comfortably located in the hospital and expect her
remain here but a few days. This hospital and also

(15:42):
the second Alabama, are under the charge of Mrs Hopkins
of Mobile. They're kept clean and nice. The fair though
playing is nevertheless good and such as the sick ought
to have. The physicians in charge, Doctors Morgan and Stinson
are very attentive. In short, a sick man fares finally
here in Comparis, then to the other hospital. Next up

(16:02):
on our list, we have a very well known nurse
who was involved in the Union War effort, Dorothea Dix,
and she's probably one of the most notable names on
this list, and it seems like a really natural fit
due to her prestigious title during the war, Superintendent of
Army Nurses. But strangely enough, it's her career before the
war that she's best known for, and it's her decidedly

(16:24):
non military experience that got her that job in the
first place. She's kind of a contradiction here, so. Born
April four, eighteen o two in Hampden, Maine, Dix was
the daughter of a prosperous Boston family's black sheep. She
has such an interesting kind of sad childhood. But her father, Joseph,
had been a divinity student at Harvard when he met

(16:44):
and married a lady eighteen years his senior and much
below his social standing. And not only did Joseph get
kicked out of school for this because he couldn't be
married at the time, his father also exiled him to
the main frontier to manage land. He really didn't do
much of that. He preferred to pursue itinerant preaching, which

(17:05):
was not a lucrative career. So Dorothea grew up poor
and with an often absent father and a sickly mother
and two little brothers, so not much of a childhood
at all. So at twelve she decided she wanted something
better for herself, and she ran away. And she went
to her wealthy Boston grandmother, who tried to turn her
into a nice young lady and give her an education.

(17:25):
Biographer Dorothy Wilson wrote that her grandmother tried to instill
quote industry inflexible dignity, economy, perfection and manners, spartan discipline,
and puritanical piety in her and it must have worked,
because only two years later, the formally uneducated Dorothea went
to live with a great aunt in Wooster and started

(17:45):
school for the children of the city's elite. They're a
fourteen year old teacher or a fourteen year old school mistress. Actually,
it's it's pretty remarkable to think of how much she
must have learned in this two years. It isn't she
didn't stop there. By the time she returned to Austin,
she was considered by the way quite beautiful and accomplished.
She skipped out on a debutante lifestyle and opted instead

(18:06):
to start a school there as well, so soon she
was managing two schools. She was educating wealthy children in
her grandmother's home in the morning and then teaching poor
kids in the afternoon for free. So by her mid
thirties she had had a broken engagement over her refusal
to stop teaching and stop writing and stop all of
her charitable pursuits um and had also suffered from several

(18:29):
spells of exhaustion and ill health. Dorothea was trying to
figure out what she was going to do with her life,
and by this point also with her wealth, because her
grandmother had left her pretty sizable fortune. So by chance,
Dorothea was asked by a Harvard divinity student in eighteen
forty one whether she knew anybody who might like to
teach Sunday school to female prisoners in Cambridge, and Dorothea

(18:53):
volunteered herself, and after the lesson, she had a little
tour of the jail, including the areas where the crim
only insane were kept, and she was just horrified by
what she saw there. They were kept in cold, dank
cells with no heat. I mean, this is this is
Massachusetts too, so think about that, and only rags for clothing,

(19:14):
and Dorothea was told that they couldn't feel things like
saying people could don't worry about them. It was all okay,
But she was deeply disturbed and started to talk to
doctors and mental health experts who were beginning to understand that,
contrary to popular belief at the time, mental illness was
something that was physical, not a spiritual problem, and therefore

(19:35):
not something that families needed to be ashamed of, because
often if families couldn't tend for their own mentally ill
at home, the sick would just wind up in jail
or in poor houses, where the conditions were often terrible.
So Dix began a campaign for better state facilities, first
surveying the mentally ill of Massachusetts and moving on from there.

(19:58):
In the eighteen fifties, she did similar servi ways in Russia,
at the Vatican, and in Turkey, and it was her
fame as a champion for the mentally ill and her
connection to governor, senators and other really high powered people
that got her appointed as the superintendent of Army nurses.
And interestingly, it wasn't until the war that Dix had
even become a public critic of slavery although she had

(20:20):
long been personally against it. It's just that she hadn't
wanted to risk alienating the South exactly. But once the
war really started, she worked to organize volunteer nurses into
cores and improve conditions in the hospitals and camps. But
she wasn't quite as beloved in her service for the
army as she was in her civilian life. Some of

(20:41):
her critics thought she was kind of inflexible as an administrator,
and that drive for perfection, which was of course the
quality that had made her so successful as a reforming
or a really vigilant kind of person, made her less
popular with doctors when she went about trying to reform
their operation ends. And so as soon as the war

(21:02):
was over, she was completely relieved to get back to
her work as a champion for the mentally ill, and
was ultimately responsible for creating thirty two asylums in the
US and improving many many more, and maybe most importantly,
helping to change people's attitudes about how to how to
care for people with mental illnesses. She died in New

(21:25):
Jersey in eight seven. The last person on our list
is perhaps even more well known than Dicks. I feel
like we get requests to cover this person every so often,
don't you think, Sarah. I think we do. And she
was known as the Angel of the Battlefield. I think
that was her nickname first we mentioned just generally known
as all the nurses were the angels. Clara Barton was

(21:48):
the Angel of the Battlefield. Yes, And while she didn't
go into the war as famous as Dorothea Dick, she
came out of it even better known. Was probably maybe
the best known of all the Civil War nurses. She
was born Clarissa Harlowe Barton in North Oxford, Massachusetts, on
Christmas Day in eight one, and she was the youngest
of five kids of a prosperous farmer, and she grew

(22:08):
up riding horses, hearing war stories from her father, and
getting her early nursing training by tending to her brother
who had been injured in a fall. So at age eighteen,
she became a teacher, worked at that for about ten
years before leaving briefly to attend college, and then when
she was done with that, went back to work as
a teacher and even established her own school in New Jersey.

(22:32):
She had a bad experience with that, though she had
raised funds for the school and set it up successfully,
and as soon as it was kind of on its
feet and doing well, um Man was appointed as her supervisor.
So she quit quit teaching entirely and moved to Washington,
d C. To go to work for the Patent Office
as a copyist. And that was a good place for

(22:53):
her to be because she started making some influential friends
like Senators Charles Sumner, who we talked about I think
on the Interview with David McCullough podcast, and Senator Henry
Wilson as well. And just incidentally, I know a lot
of the nurses we've talked about have been single. Barton
never married as well, even though she had numerous suitors,

(23:15):
including a forty niner who must have done quite well
in his pursuit of goal because he sent her ten
thousand dollars at one point as an unsuccessful enticement to wed.
It was still shot down. I can't believe it. So
when the Civil War began, Barton started volunteering immediately. She'd
meet men arriving in d C. From New England and

(23:37):
treat their sunstroke or other ailments from the road, and
she recognized a lot of the kids from New England
as her former students, and soon enough, families from Massachusetts
and New Jersey started to send her supplies, knowing that
she'd get them to their boys. So not long after
Barton started doing this, she decided to leave her job
and start working as a volunteer nurse for the Union

(23:58):
Army full time. Her for order of business was to
single handedly start a campaign to get the word out
that the army was really badly in need of supplies.
So she advertised in newspapers and talked to as many
people as she could, and people from just about every
northern state responded, sending food, medicine advantages. Eventually she needed
three warehouses to store it all, and by eighteen sixty

(24:20):
two Clara was visiting battle grounds herself. She would lead
teams of volunteers out to the front lines and deliver supplies,
and once she was there, she'd walk around and tend
to the wounded men lying on the ground and bring
them things like gruel or tea and wine and um.
Just as an example, in August eighteen sixty two, she
arrived at the Second Battle of bull Run, or Manassas

(24:42):
as we called it earlier, with three railroad cars of
supplies and four volunteers, and she stayed just until the
last possible second. The train carried her off just as
the Confederate troops were rounding a hill behind her, right
where she had been tending to men a few minutes earlier.
So obviously life on the front lines did mean some

(25:03):
close call. She had a bullet passed through her sleeve
and kill a wounded man who she was tending, and
she also had an exploding shell tear off part of
her skirt as an officer was helping her over a
bridge and some debris. She became known as the Florence
Nightingale of America, or the Angel of the Battlefield, as
we mentioned, and troops would cheer when she arrived, even

(25:24):
get out the brass bands sometimes. But by the war's midpoint,
better organization meant that the provisioning wasn't quite as desperate,
so officers with the U. S. Sanitary Commission started to
turn down Barton's help. She got sent back to d
C and was actually depressed, maybe even suicidal at this time,
according to the Women in World History Encyclopedia. Fortunately, though

(25:46):
Senator Henry Wilson pulled through her for his buddy Clara
and got her papers restored, and she went to work
for Grant's army and served through out the remainder of
the war. But even after the fight was over, she
really kept her position as a soldiers advocate and worked
at first independently to locate missing men on behalf of

(26:08):
families who had been writing to her throughout the war,
and was ultimately granted a government allowance and helped to
create these lists of missing men that were circulated around
the country so you could um run them by hospitals
or or prisons and determine which ones had actually died
in battle and and presumably give some closure to some

(26:30):
of those families. In her later years, Barton is of
course known for creating the American Red Cross in the
United States and for heading it up for twenty three years.
She died in Maryland in nineteen twelve. So that rounds
out our Nurses podcast or Civil War Nurses podcast. Again.
There were so many to choose from, and so many

(26:51):
who would be great interesting entries. Yeah, or full length podcasts.
I mean, I think several of these ladies could have
could have had entire podcasts, And honestly, I think that's
probably why We didn't bring in a couple of them
because we thought they could probably deserve a little bit. Yeah,
not that these don't. We'll probably mention a few of
these ladies down the road too, but we just thought

(27:12):
it would be cool to include them on this list.
I think to looking at the big picture of several
of the nurses we've talked about, it does seem like
they have uh an interesting role they play in how
the war progresses. There there in the beginning when things
are really desperate and help is much needed, and then

(27:32):
some of them get sort of shuttled to the side
as things get better organized and um men get put
into the higher up positions. Yet some of them managed
to hold on to Like Mariann Bickerdyke, I mean, it
just depends on the personality and maybe the people they
were working under two Yeah, and even if they even
after the war ended, they didn't let that slow them down.

(27:52):
That they just kind of kept going and kept serving others.
And it just showed that that was such a big
part of not just what they needed to do in
that moment to help their country, but of who they were.
It reminded me very slightly of women going to work
during World War two and that obviously affecting some people,
making them want to keep working after the war. And

(28:15):
I have to imagine that at least some of these
what did you say, twenty nurses wanted to keep working
after the actual battle is done. Well, Like I said,
we'll probably make an effort to try to find out
about some more of those in the future, and maybe
even another part of the series, maybe another episode for
the series down the road. Um, if we are so inclined,

(28:37):
or if you guys are so inclined, you're certainly welcome
to write to us and let us know if there
are other nurses that you would love to hear about.
And before we sign off, we want to give a
shout out to all our listeners who are nurses. We
hear from a lot of you guys, We do thank you,
Thank you for listening, and if you have any suggestions
of nurses or any other kind of episode topic for us,

(28:58):
please write us where History Podcast at how staff works
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(29:20):
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